History of Video Games - 740 Words

Video games have shaped the world your years. Video games have defined us and made us through technology. Some would say they can’t live without video games while others say they would die if they played them. Video games also start franchises, wars, friendships, relationships, and inspiration for those who might one day become a game designer them self. Aside from the gamers and designers, the video game itself is a whole other story. Video games are now-a-days played on consoles and PCs made from the hardware with all the components from it needs to send signals and what not. There is also the code within the video games, one simple action you take in a video game can be maybe 3 to 20 pages worth of code. The creation of video game also have a really cool history as well. In 1943 the first ever computer was built by British engineer, Tommy Flowers. It was a digital programmable computer. In 1952 a Tic-Tac-Toe based game was created by Alexander Douglas. You could say that w as the first video game but in 1958 a game called Tennis for Two was created by William Ginbotham and Robert Dvorak. Afterward for people began and started to explore video games. In 1962 Space War was created by Steve Russle but was never released , this started a roar for the first gamers. Wallace Feurzeg creates Playing Doctor in 1963which was a video game that was supposed to teach new nurses the nursing field of their job. In 1971 the first video arcade game was released for public use though itShow MoreRelatedThe History Of Video Games1529 Words   |  7 PagesThe History of Video Games Some people may not know this, but there was a time when video games were not around. Like a lot of things in the world that are distinctly human, video games were made out of a combination of innovation, necessity, and curiosity. The early video game creators would be making something that would seem clunky, and somewhat crude at first. But that would completely change in time by the innovators, and entrepreneurs to something that would some day be consider an art formRead MoreThe History Of Video Games1922 Words   |  8 PagesWallace English 12, 3rd 5 February 2015 The History of Video Games So, I’m going to change things a bit. Instead of just talking about dates and numbers, which can be boring; I’m going to give this a little casual twist. So, in order to start the history let’s get a few facts out of the way. Let’s talk about gamers, mainly because I’ll be using the term a lot; gamers are people who spent a lot of time playing videogames. The Average gamer playing video games has spent twelve years playing them. AdultRead MoreThe History Of Video Games1797 Words   |  8 PagesHistory of video games. Have you ever played a video game and wonder? How does this thing work? Who invented it? Well you in luck because I have all the information that you need to tell you about the history of video games. How video games have advance right along with technology that we use in everyday life. If you ask people. When video games did first came out? Most people would say in the 1970 s and they would be wrong. In 1958, William A. Higinbotham, an engineer working for the United StatesRead MoreHistory of Video Games823 Words   |  4 Pagesargument of whether video games are good or bad for society is a clear example. Opponents believe they are a bad contribution to society while proponents believe they are a necessary and supportive addition to society. William Higinbotham, who in 1958 created a game called Tennis for TwoÂ… (The Beginning), is the one credited for the invention of the video game. At this stage in time, this new innovation did not spark much interest with the public. Computer and video games themselves did notRead More The History of Video Games Essay1046 Words   |  5 PagesThe History of Video Games 1972, the year the first home video game system, named Odyssey, is released by Magnavox. This main games featured on this system were a light gun game and a tennis game. During the same time, a game by the name of Pong is a success in the public. It is because people wanted to play Pong in the comfort of their own homes, that they bought Odyssey. The system only sold around 100,000 units since Magnavox only sold the game system from theirRead MoreEssay The history of video games987 Words   |  4 Pagesbeginning†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. The first real â€Å"video game† was made in 1958, by a physicist named William Higginbotham. It is a table tennis like game and is played on an oscilloscope, a device used for visual displays. While some big name games, company’s, and events have yet to happen, this is what sparked the video game interest. These paragraphs will guide you through the many years of games. Lets‘a go!! Early years (1961—1972) Things start off when the first interactive computer game---- SpaceWars (made in 1961)Read MoreHistory Of Home Video Game1511 Words   |  7 PagesHistory of Home Video Game Consoles The video game industry has gone through some interesting developments over the past fifty years. Video games are as much of a pass time as watching network television, or going to see a movie. The initial motivation for video game production was to bring interested consumers to the computer market and has evolved into many forms and designs to give the end user an artificial experience of playing table tennis with a friend, or an imaginary friend. This paperRead MoreHistory of Video Games Essay2103 Words   |  9 PagesDid you know that Pong; the first game made by Atari, wasn’t originally meant to be released to the public? A new Atari employee was given the assignment of making it simply as a test of his game design skills. Since Pong became a hit, video games have been a large part of the entertainment business. They have found their way into homes all over the world. â€Å"You can’t say that video games grew out of pinball, but you can assume that video games wouldn’t have happened without it. It’s like bicyclesRead More History Of Video Games Essay801 Words   |  4 Pagesargument of whether video games are good or bad for society is a clear example. Opponents believe they are a bad contribution to society while proponents believe they are a necessary and supportive addition to society. William Higinbotham, who in 1958 created a game called Tennis for TwoÂ… (The Beginning), is the one credited for the invention of the video game. At this stage in time, this new innovation did not spark much interest with the public. Computer and video games themselves did notRead MoreHistory of Video Games Essay examples1266 Words   |  6 PagesVideo games have progressed immensely in price and technology over the past thirty years making them more popular then ever. Video games were originally for arcades, then came the first home console. The graphics have changed a lot since the first console game. Games colors were originally just black and white now they have more colors then you can think of. Not all businesses made it through competition of other businesses. In the seventies video games were fairly new. Some companies were

Playing God in Shelleys Frankenstein Essay - 1202 Words

For as long as science has existed to satisfy mans appetite for knowledge and exploration, there have been people with the belief that science is none other than mans attempt to play God. The 19th century was a time of enlightenment where philosophical thought began and mans concern to better himself in a psychological form developed. During this time of enlightenment and exploration however, the standards of Christianity and ethical thought challenged science and its moral reasoning. Despite the large progress in society, the churchs vast power led the people to fear science. However the churchs fear was not just for the salvation of their church, but that science would disprove the proof of God and take Gods place in†¦show more content†¦However, in Victors role as God he is so enthralled with the thought of bringing life to a lifeless corpse that he ignores the moral affects that his creation will have on society. He wants so badly to understand, and potentially prevent, the mortality of man that he never thinks there may be a reason we cant create life or live forever. He thinks nothing to altering a system that has existed in the world since the inception of life. It is not until after he completes his experiment, he can only begin to understand some of the consequences. In discussing the shock of his creation Victor states, how can I describe my emotions at this catastrophe, or how delineate the wretch whom with such infinite pain and care I had endeavoured to form?(34). Much like with the current stem cell and genetics research ethical questions being raised, there are a lot of things to consider when one begins messing with the complexity of life. Life itself is complex beyond our understanding; relatively little is known today about its inner-workings. Therefore, it can be nothing better than irresponsible to create life from death, when you dont understand what is already alive. The admittance of his disappointment in his work causes one to question why he would create such a monstrous creature that would obviously not fit into society. The most obvious explanation would be that he is so overpowered with the possibility of his own death, that he hopes to gain the knowledge ofShow MoreRelatedEssay on Playing God in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein1917 Words   |  8 Pages     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What differentiates Mary Shelly’s novel, Frankenstein from the majority of horror novels are the very real and timeless themes it explores.   The overriding theme of the novel - scientific investigation without consideration of morality and responsibility is still an important topic in today’s world.   â€Å"Perhaps the reality of cloning and genetic engineering makes this theme more relevant today than when Frankenstein was first published†(Patterson). This theme, along with the more subtleRead More Playing God in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein Essay5215 Words   |  21 PagesAristotle defines the tragic hero as a man of high social status who invites the gods to punish him through overbearing pride and/or presumption – hubris. It would be simple to assign the label of hubristic tragic hero to Victor Frankenstein, but such assignment of a label would be an oversimplification. The gods in Greek drama punish, albeit harshly, in an outright manner. The tragic figure is aware that the gods have forsaken him, and he resigns to live his life under the demands of retributionRead MoreEssay about The Reasons for Victor Frankensteins Emotional Turmoil1140 Words   |  5 Pages10. Explore the basis for this turmoil and Mary Shelley’s portrayal of Victor’s state of mind. In this Essay I shall explore the reasons for Victor Frankenstein’s emotional turmoil in chapters 9 and 10 and look at how some events in Mary Shelley’s life mirrors some events in the book. I will also look at a few of the themes running through Frankenstein. Such as religion, parenting, hate, revenge, guilt and compassion. At the time that Frankenstein was published most people still believed the genesisRead MoreBiblical Analysis Of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein 1376 Words   |  6 Pages16 November 2015 Biblical Analysis: Frankenstein Frankenstein by Mary Shelley often refers to the bible on a number of occasions. However, it is worth noting that many references used by Mary Shelley in Frankenstein can often be identified in Genesis. Much like Genesis, the story of Frankenstein is a viable creation story. The book of Genesis first explains the creation of man and woman, and also recounts the fall of humanity. Unlike Genesis, Frankenstein begins with the fall of humanity, leadingRead MoreFrankenstein by Mary Shelley1093 Words   |  4 Pagesbase for Mary Shelleys tale Frankenstein. On the other hand, J. Michael Bishops, essay Enemies of Promise   on the other hand promotes and boast sciences achievements. However, Mary Shelley presents her point of view subtly yet very dramatically, which is much more effective than that of J. Michael Bishop. The dramatic story Shelley creates becomes a part of the reader, therefore holding the readers attention. Shelleys essay is less concrete therefore wont bore the reade r. Shelleys essay is alsoRead MoreFrankenstein, By Mary Shelley902 Words   |  4 PagesMary Shelley’s life was constantly enveloped in tragedy and scandal, so it is no surprise that a despairing work of gothic science fiction would result form an ill-fated, tortured soul like Shelley. From the very beginning of her life, Shelley experienced great misfortune with the passing of her mother. Later on, three of her four children died in their infancy, and her husband drowned off the shore of Tuscany. It would not be hard to believe that it was this series of burdensome life events thatRead MoreAnalysis of the Creation Scene from Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Kenneth Branagh’s 1994 Film Version912 Words   |  4 PagesAnalysis of the Creation Scene from Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Kenneth Branagh’s 1994 Film Version One of the key themes in Mary Shelley’s ‘Frankenstein’ is human arrogance. Frankenstein’s curiosity leads him to play the role of God. In a way Frankenstein is responsible for the monster and has ultimately become a father figure to the monster. Frankenstein abandoning the monster leads up to it turning evil and looking for revenge. Therefore, parenting is another themeRead More Themes of Shelleys Frankenstein Essay1421 Words   |  6 Pagesnovel Frankenstein. The themes that are explored in Frankenstein are relevant to today’s modern world. Shelley challenges readers by endorsing and confronting attitudes and values in her text through the events, circumstances and outcomes that take place in the novel, thus causing the reader to reflect upon their own lives and in turn the society around them. Shelley raises in her text an issue that is on the forefront of discussion in the modern world, that of man taking the place of God and theRead MoreThe Value And Knowledge Of Literature818 Words   |  4 Pagesknowledge gain to the majority, is one of the most well-known and highly acclaimed novel, Frankenstein by Mary Shelley. Analysis of biased nature and lack of multiple perspective analyses are problematic enough to depreciate the value of Frankenstein as innovative literature to low level horror story. It’s not a obvious social problem but a direct hit to the knowledge of Frankenstein’s millions of readers. Frankenstein is a fine example confronting a majority of its readers that are only able to analyzeRead MoreThe Monster’s Birth in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein Essay727 Words   |  3 Pages In the Romantic novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelly, the selection in chapter five recounting the birth of Dr. Frankenstein’s monster plays a vital role in explaining the relationship between the doctor and his creation. Shelley’s use of literary contrast and Gothic diction eloquently set the scene of Frankenstein’s hard work and ambition coming to life, only to transform his way of thinking about the world forever with its first breath. In this specific chapter, Victors scientific obsession

Linguistic culture Free Essays

When I finished read Laura Bohannan’s essay â€Å"Shakespeare in the Bush† I felt that I was smiling. Can you beat it: Elizabeth Bowen-Smith (who will became Laura Bohannan later), intelligent student of Oxford university, sits on the calabash, drinks beer and explain the story of Hamlet to group of tribesmen. Some of them are a very experienced, old person who knows things. We will write a custom essay sample on Linguistic culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now It seems that Laura met very interesting company: they are bilingual (but their English is much worse than their native Tiv language (Tiv-Batu sub-group of the Bantoid branch of the Benue-Congo subdivision of Niger-Congo)), they know only own culture and believe that people in all world are the same. This concept of â€Å"universal understanding† brought her audience to idea that this young European girl (because all whites should be Europeans) do not remember this history exactly. She made a lot of mistakes and some details of Hamlet history were so strange for Tiv traditions that they were even fain to acknowledge that Europe is really another world. Bohannan told about Hamlet in very simple words and Tiv understood Hamlet plot, but very generally. Different cultural backgrounds not only make the Tiv and Bohannan have very different interpretations of Hamlet status (â€Å"son of chief†) or the general ideas of life and death. But the Tiv people interpreted several specific aspects of the story much differently than the modern Western culture. Almost from the beginning of Bohannan’s tale, tribe members interrupted to question and disagree with her about most of the key elements in the story. There was the appearance of Hamlet’s father’s ghost, Claudius’ marriage to Gertrude, the fact that Hamlet couldn’t marry Ophelia, Hamlet’s madness, Polonius’ death, Ophelia’s drowning death and the poison for after the final duel. The ghost of Hamlet’s father appeared in the castle to inform Hamlet of the truth about his death. The most of modern people could easily explain what is a ghost. The Tiv thought otherwise. The tribesmen scoffed at the notion that Hamlet’s father is a ghost because they don’t believe that any individual part of human personality survives after death. Tiv culture believes in witches and witchcraft, and then Hamlet’s father image must have been a zombie sent by witches as an omen. I like this passage from Bohannan’s essay: â€Å"The old men muttered: such omens were matters for chiefs and elders, not for youngsters; no good could come of going behind a chief’s back; clearly Horatio was not a man who knew things† (Bohannan). It seems that witches and their magic power were reality for Tiv people. You know that their religious beliefs were centered around the concept of akombo, defined as magical forces and their emblems. Between concepts of â€Å"ghost† and â€Å"akombo† we have intercultural gap. These words cannot be translated to other language without loosing some sense. Any translation is approximation only. For full understanding people should be members of certain society. Let’s go on. In the story of Hamlet, Hamlet’s uncle, Claudius, marries Hamlet’s mother, Gertrude. This marriage was only two months after Claudius’ brother, the King, was killed. The modern Western culture feels that this marriage was incestuous. It also took place too soon after the death of her husband. The Tiv, however, found no problem with it. It was a custom for the natives for the brother of a deceased man to marry his wife. This way, the fields could be taken care of and the farms could be managed. Another detail: one of the younger Tiv men asked Laura who had married the other wives of the â€Å"dead chief† (King). When she told that the King had only one wife they were surprised. â€Å"But a chief must have many wives! How else can he brew beer and prepare food for all his guests?† (Bohannan). Laura explanation about European tradition to have only one wife and to use servants for homework (and especially mentioning taxes) makes Tiv men to adduce an argument: â€Å"It was better for a chief to have many wives and sons who would help him hoe his farms and feed his people; then everyone loved the chief who gave much and took nothing† (Bohannan). As you remember, in the Shakespeare’s play, Hamlet could not marry his true love, Ophelia, because he was royalty and she a commoner. The Tiv disagreed with this also. They felt that the marriage should be permitted because since Hamlet was royalty, then he could shower Ophelia’s father, Polonius, with gifts and money. This seemed to be very rational to the Tiv, although it seems to be an odd to the modern Western culture. Since Hamlet was not permitted to marry Ophelia, he went mad. In the western tradition the positive imaging of love madness appeared probably in troubadours’ songs, probably in more ancient times. But for African tribe it was impossible to attribute madness to unhappy love affair. The Tiv felt that Hamlet’s madness was attributed to more serious cause – to witchcraft. They said her that â€Å"only witchcraft can make anyone mad, unless, of course, one sees the beings that lurk in the forest† (Bohannan). Laura did the best to explain relations between Hamlet, his uncle and his mother. These episodes of the play were absolutely unclear for Tiv people. They had several arguments for their position. Hamlet scolded his mother for her sin but man should never scold his mother. Hamlet wanted to kill Claudius who killed his father but nobody can kill or attempt to kill his elders (in Tiv traditions). Tiv men said Hamlet should have contacted his father’s friends to avenge the murder of King but do not try and avenge the murder himself. I found no Tiv reactions (and no explanation by Laura) to the moment when Hamlet went to kill Claudius but found him praying. He did not kill him because he believed that killing Claudius while in prayer would send Claudius’s soul to heaven. We know that Tiv do not believe in the beyond. So this motive should not be clear for them. Laura missed this episode. May be she felt that she had no chances to explain this for her audience? She also did not tell about Hamlet’s words about Polonius’ murder â€Å"Heaven hath pleased it so / To punish me with this, and this with me† (Hamlet, III.iv.157–158) and about Polonius’ body â€Å"The body is with the king, but the king is not with the body† (Hamlet IV.ii.25–26). When Hamlet killed Polonius, Ophelia’s father, she was so distraught after hearing about this that she committed suicide by drowning herself. The Tiv were strongly opposed to this. They felt that only witches could make someone drown because water alone cannot hurt someone. â€Å"It is merely something one drinks and bathes in† (Bohannan). They understood that Ophelia’s brother, Laertes, killed her to sell her to the witches because he ran out of money. Also, at Ophelia’s funeral, Laertes jumped into her grave to say his last goodbye. Hamlet then jumped into the grave to say his last goodbye, also. The Tiv thought that Laertes was trying to steal the body so he could sell it to the witches. Since Hamlet jumped in, then he saved Ophelia’s body from being sold. They felt that Laertes wanted to kill Hamlet because he prevented him from selling Ophelia’s body. And I like Tiv explanation very much: â€Å"Hamlet prevented him, because the chief’s heir, like a chief, does not wish any other man to grow rich and powerful.† (Bohannan) About understanding the duel between Hamlet and Laertes. King Claudius gave Laertes a poisoned rapier (probably Laura translated it as â€Å"machete†) so that Hamlet would die even if he was just scratched by the sword. Laertes has his sword poisoned in an effort to do Hamlet in once and for all. Claudius wanted Hamlet dead because he knew the truth about his father’s death. Just in case Hamlet survived the battle, a glass of poisoned wine was waiting for the victor. The wine unfortunately fell into the wrong hands, and Hamlet’s mother drank it and died. The modern Western culture believes that the wine was intended for Hamlet in case he survived the duel. The Tiv believe otherwise. They felt that the wine was intended for the victor of the match, either Hamlet or Laertes. They thought that it would be used to kill Hamlet because he knew true about the murder of his father, or it would be used to kill Laertes so no one would know about the conspiracy between him and Claudius to kill Hamlet. I think that the main point of Bohannan’s essay was to illustrate that different cultures interpret things differently. What we accept is influenced by our own cultural and linguistic values. Both interpretations of Hamlet are correct according to the cultural values of the two different cultures. (May be Tiv opinion is more correct because they proposed for Laura to tell them some more stories of her country. They said â€Å"We, who are elders, will instruct you in their true meaning, so that when you return to your own land your elders will see that you have not been sitting in the bush, but among those who know things and who have taught you wisdom.† (Bohannan)) It seems that the author intentions is not a matter. If our interpretation is different than that of the author, but the story still influenced our life, then that is all that matters. Word is just symbol and everyone can understand it how he can. But if you want to communicate with other people you should learn their culture and to speak their language. References: Bohannan, Laura (1971), from Conformity and Conflict: Readings in Cultural Anthropology, eds. James P. Spradley and David W. McCurdy Boston: Little Brown and Company. http://www.cc.gatech.edu/~idris/Essays/Shakes_in_Bush.htm Ethnographic Atlas of the Center of Social Anthropology and Computing. University of Kent at Canterbury http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/EthnoAtlas/Hmar/Cult_dir/Culture.7874 William Shakespeare. Hamlet The Oxford Shakespeare.1914 http://www.alma.edu/students/students/02merosa/hamlet/hamlet_fulltext.htm    How to cite Linguistic culture, Essay examples

Management Principles and Application for Construction

Question1: a) How are construction projects planned? This should refer to the following:project organisation and coordination (layout and accommodation, method statements, plans of work, safety plans)Project Monitoring; e.g. Gantt charts, critical path arrow diagrams, precedence diagrams, line of balance; manual and computer-based techniques. b) How is Procurement scheduling and control carried out for materials and plant? You should try to cover as many different types. c) How is quality controlled? What methods are used? d) What other factors need to be taken in to consideration when planning construction projects. Answer1: a) Project planning in construction management involves planning of what to done? Where to be done? Whom to do? When to do? And How to do? Complete project planning facilitates the actual project progress. Generally speaking planning of a project works out to keep tasks arranged. Project planning is essential to organize the tasks for increasing the effectiveness of the project execution. Planning of the project is essential to identify the critical path of the project execution. Essentially planning of the construction project will work out to identify the slack period in the projects and will facilitate effective execution of the project work. Planning is inevitably necessary to minimize the total project work. Once the project feasibility is assessed by the organization management, the detailed construction project planning will commence. Several key personnel along with the project management experts involve in the project planning phase of the project. Typical issues planned during the construction project planning phase includes the total time for the project completion, the resources needed for the project like human resources, material resources , capital resources etc. During the design planning of the project the actual layout of the project will be confirmed and will be subsequently approved by all the related stakeholders as a part of the project plan. Gantt charts, CPM, Precedence diagrams will be used to structure the project plan in terms of the different activities and all the tasks will be streamlined to identify the project duration and the optimum sequence of the project tasks. Key personnel from different domain expertise along with the top management do usually involve in the planning committee of the organization. Other supporting plans like devising the safety measures, like safety control methods, implementation of the safety standards enforcing all do constitute project planning in any construction project. Line of balance (LOB) techniques are employed for expediting the implemented project plan in the construction. Typical objectives include comparison of the actual progress with respect to the project plan. Assessment of the severity on the future plans by means of deviations from the established plan. Identification of the project deviations and the corrective actions assessment and implementation are all the part of the future project forecasting process. Project planning is essential for any type of the project viz., small, medium, large etc. Conventionally manual project planning is common. The present day improvement in the technologies made the project planning more effective by means of availability of the number of the project planning and management tools available(Walker,2002)(Hendrickson,1982)(Clough,2000). b) Project scheduling is essentially a project management tool, which works to provide a detailed list of the project activities with the expected start and the finish date. Also included in the project scheduling are the activities such as the resources and the time duration planning. Project scheduling will provide input to the project manager for the estimation of the cost and other resources requirement planning. Also the project scheduling template will facilitate a project manager to expedite the project progress. Break down of the actual total work precedes the actual project scheduling. Supply chain management involve the modelling of the supply chain analytics to find a representative situation of the material supply or the material flow into the construction management. Any deviation of the supply chain analytics will have direct implications to the scheduled program and its analytics. Hence a project schedule will facilitate the project management to monitor the schedule and take corrective actions whenever necessary. Project scheduling is a representation of the sequence of the project activities and the time duration of the activities with the start and end dates. Project scheduling will facilitate procurement of the material in right time as per the project requirements. As it is essential to make the project complete in right time, any deviation in the external factors should be accounted for in facilitating the changes as well to plan the new project progress and to estimate the analytics of the same. Just in time is a process of procuring the things in right time. There are several techniques of Scheduling in Just in time. Just in Time scheduling of the activities involve costing the earliness and tardiness with respect to a fixed due date. A constraint programming approach will result in a JIT PERT solution. The JIT constraint based scheduling is one of the many techniques gained popularity in the project scheduling process. Recycling and the safe disposal of the demolished materials will be scheduled before the actual project commences itself. Prior to the actual scheduling of the waste and the recycling scheduling process, the actual possible waste estimation is mandatory in the project plan. Estimation of the project waste in each phase of the project, evaluating the waste handling like whether it is needed to be handled by recycling or whether it will be required to dispose-off safely is the part of the planning that forms input to the scheduling. A proper and timely planning of waste disposal management will facilitate an efficient project planning and schedule and also will contribute to the minimization of the overall resource costing to the project. Waste management in the construction process usually starts with the estimation of the waste in each phase of the construction process. Identification of the type of the waste management (whether recycling or disposal) forms the key constitute of the waste scheduling process. Resource scheduling and the utilization of the direct and the contracted labor in an organization consists of the identification of the requirements for the project and the tuning the scheduling process with the availability of the resources. For example if a project is outsourced by a project owner, the scheduling of the project will be done by the contractor. If the contractor operates by outsourcing to the subcontractors the subcontractor will do the project scheduling. Basically the scheduling here mean the effective planning of the resource allocation considering the direct labor available and also considering the hired direct labor. At times, scheduling will also consider the multiple project progression and scheduling will consider the resource requirements of all the projects as well as the resources available in hand. Costing and budgeting of the project will be done usually based on the historical factual information and a thorough interpolation of the information to the present project will yield cost and budget control constraints to the running project. An integrated approach of project management will facilitate the project budget and the cost controlling aspects of the project management. This will be done through the scheduling of the money resources to the project. Budgeting and the costing of the project elements to the micro break down elements will facilitate high coherence with the constraints laid down. An integrated costing will facilitate the project to adhere to the limits imposed on (OBrien, 1993) (Mullholland, 1993) (Austeng et al, 2006). c) Quality of the construction project will usually be decided in the planning phase of the project. Quality assurance and the quality control wings are the two units of the quality management stream of the construction management. Quality assurance team of the construction project team Will determine whether the proper control methods are used in the design as well as in the construction phase of the project. If the work is subcontracted, then the Quality management team will examine and decide whether the quality standards are upto the requirements in the construction project. Designing the standards like ISO quality standards to the construction project and enforcing the quality standards in the construction by means of means of quality inspection is one of the most popular technique employed in the construction project. Total quality control is one such quality control method which ensures zero defective material usage in the construction project. Statistical methods of quality control are more popular in the construction industry. Sampling by attributes and the sampling by variables are the most popular statistical techniques of quality control. PDCA technique is another popular technique used for quality control in the construction management industry. (PDCA mean plan, Do, check and Act) All these four process will be integrated to keep up the quality control in the construction industry (Montgomery, 2007) (Kanji, 1996). d) Construction planning embraces a number of domains which are all required for the implementation of an efficient work plan. There are number of issues that will be covered during the process. Workforce recruitment consist of arranging work force as per the requirement of the project plan in right quantity, at right time as well with necessary skills. Usually this will be done as per the project requirements. Work force planning is also done as per the project execution plan, if the project is to be executed in house then the direct work force will be arranged as per the requirements of the project plan. If the project is outsourced then the work force will be planned as per the requirement by the contractor to whom the work is delegated. Usually the planning will be done taking into consideration of the work skill level requirement, Man power preparation will be done as per the project requirements, right training will be provided to people well before the actual task commencement so as to let the task accomplished in right time and with right quality. Within the planning phase it will also be done to estimate the skill levels requirement and the work plan will be devised accordingly. Usually the project planning and execution requires compliances as per the existing legislature requirements from time to time. The design to be implemented need to be approved as per the compliance requirements. Design approval as well as the project progression need to be done as per the legislatural compliance requirements. Information verification and control will be done at different phases of the project in accordance with various progression requirements of the project. The accuracy and precision of the information collected and the controlled will be done at various stages of the project. Typical methods include cross verification from a variety of sources (Baloi et al, 2003) (Sanvido et al, 1992) (Chua et al, 1999) (Love, 2002). Question2: Evaluate the procurement methods used in the construction and built environment sector. Explain the use of contracts to manage construction projects. Evaluate the impact of procurement techniques on the organisation and operation of construction firms and construction projects. Answer2: There are several procurement methods employed in the construction and built environment sector. Typical procedures involve traditional or general contracting the work, where in the typical variants of the process involve bills of firm quantities and specification, schedules of rates, cost reimbursement as well as labor for finishing the project. Other procurement methods involve Design- build process, where in the client employs single point of contact. However the client commits to the cost of the total project in terms of the design and the construction. Generally in this method, the contracting organization is responsible for the design and construction. Few varieties of the design and build type of procurement methods are available in the literature, some of them being develop and construct where the client has the design prepared to concert or scheme design stage and the contractor will takes on finishing off the design. Package deal is a process where in the contractor provide s an off the shelf building, where the building type is often modular and the sizing of the same can be adjusted at any time as per the requirements of the project. Management contracting is the process in which the permanent works are constructed under a series of construction contracts which are placed by the management contractor after approval by the client. Other methods include the procedures where the contractors are contracted directly to the client and the construction manager manages the process for the client on a simple consultancy basis. Usually this technique is employed by senior and experienced clients. (Love, 2002)(Bing 2005)(Love, 1998) Contracts are used in the construction project either if the owner do not have expertise in carrying out the construction project are the resources may not available for the construction alternatively there may be situation where two or more projects are proceeding simultaneously. Contracts forms a legal and well defined bind over between all the participating stakeholders for work completion. This forms a reference in the situations of deviation from the accepted terms of the construction as well will also forms a well-defined and legal obligation for all the parties to execute the project. One of the biggest issues for the bank is understanding how the process of procurement and contracting operate within the construction industry. With this in mind, compile a second report that covers the following: Procurement techniques do have decisive influence on the performance of the project. Procurement technique will obviously influence the type and the form of Governance. For example a traditional governance form of the procurement technique will result in number of complications, at the same time procurement by competition, procurement by co-optetion as well as procurement by co-operation are some of the different forms that do have direct influence on the form of the governance on the project performance. Typical performance parameters that will be affect the project performance are economic performance, time performance, quality of the output, environmental performance as well as work and innovation(baiden,2006)(Ward,1991)(Eriksson, 2008). Question3: a) Evaluate the different types of Procurement methods. b) Explain the different types of contracts to manage construction projects. c) Evaluate the impact of procurement techniques on your organisation and operation of construction firms and construction projects. Look at the different way teams operate i.e. multi-disciplinary teams, integrated teams, partnering. How performance is monitored e.g. benchmarking, key performance indicators (KPIs) and does an organisation deal with environmental management issues and legislation. Answer3: a) Traditional method of tendering Traditional method tendering involves making a traditional lump sum contract which requires the production of a complete set of documents before tenders are invited are invited. Hence it takes lot of ground work to be done before the actual invitation of the tenders in the case of the traditional method of tendering. The method assumes that the design will be appointed by consultants and it will be assumed that the contractor will not be having any obligations to execute the design this may not be true in all the cases and hence it is normally required to express the terms related to that in the contract. Usually the employer decides which specialist firms the contractor need to use and the contractor may require certain safeguards related to performance. It is highly one sided since the payments and valuations are done usually by the employers consultants. The method do have certain accountability due to a competition based selection. All the tendering contractors bid on the same b asis and hence there exists competitive equity in the process. Design lead and the client is able to have a direct influence which can facilitate a high level of functionality and improve the quality in the overall design. There will be price certainty at the award of the contract. It is quite easy to manage the variations in the design. This is quite well established method of the procurement process. The disadvantages of the process include the consumption of large amount of time to produce all the full contract information. Usually it takes more time in the traditional procurement than any other process. Another disadvantage of the process is no design or planning of the project by the contractor as they are not appointed during the design stage. Method of partnering in the procurement process Partnering type of the procurement process includes a substantial amount of accountability on the contractor as well. Usually the design is a part of obligation of the contractor and it includes express reference to the responsibility for some or all of the design. Some of the key advantages of the project being transparency in all the issues progressing in the project. Price certainty is one of the several issues that commences during the process, overlap of the design and the construction activities can reduce project time, due to the partnering of the contractor in the actual construction process there will be certain amount of the improvement in the constructability. However the negative aspects of the project include difficulties in preparing an adequate and sufficiently comprehensive brief, since the contractor is also partner in the progress, there usually lies lot of expenses when the client changes the project scope anytime in the project progression, Usually the design liab ility in the project is limited to the standard contracts that are available in such partnership type of procurement processes Public private partnership Procurement PPP type of the procurement process do facilitate the public sector to harness the expertise and the efficiencies that the private sector can bring to the delivery of the certain facilities and services traditionally procured and delivered by the public sector. This will also be structured in a way that the public sector body seeking to make a capital investment does not incur any borrowing. PPP borrowing any if required will be incurred by the private sector vehicle. Typical benefits of the PPP type of procurement involve speedy, efficient and cost effective delivery of the projects, value for money for the taxpayer through optimal risk transfer and risk management, efficiencies from integrated design and construction, creation of added values through the synergies, alleviation of the capacity constraints and bottlenecks in the delivery of the project, innovation and diversity in the provision of public services, effect utilization of the public assets for the benefits of the end us ers of all public services. However typical PPP type of procurement processes are more complicated, because of the reasons existing like need to anticipate possible contingencies in a long term contractual relationship. There is possibility of high legal expenses in negotiating a PPP procurement contract. Private finance initiative Private finance initiative is a type of the PPP financing. The process consist of funding public infrastructure projects with the private capital. It is also been used to simply to place a great amount of debt off balance sheet and proved to be successful. Generally a special purpose vehicle (SPV), the private firm works on to provide capital for the PPP finance requirements. Not only the required capital, the SPV also works on to provide maintenance as well as capital replacement expenses during the life cycle of the contract. They usually range for duration more than 25-30 years. The consortium will usually paid over the course of the process on a no service no fee performance basis. The public authority will design an output specification which is a document setting out what the consortium is expected to achieve. Usually the process is complicated, the public sector is entitled to terminate the contract, compensate the consortium where appropriate and take ownership of the projec t. The termination procedures of the contract are very complex as most projects are not able to secure private financing without assurance of project repayment in the case of the termination (Brennen, 2000). b) There are number of contracts in use in managing the construction projects, lumpsum contract is a type of the contract where the owner has essentially assigned all the risk to the contractor. The legal obligations of the project include higher markup in the cases of unforeseen contingencies in the project. Also the there can be other commitments like underestimated cost, which will reduce the contractors profit by that amount. Overestimated contracts may result in losing the bid in the lumpsum projects. Unit price contract is a case where the risk of the inaccurate estimation of uncertain quantities for some key tasks has been removed from the contractor. The bid has flexibility in opting for flexible methodology of the biding, contractor can rise the bid value in the case of the underestimated bids and can even lower the unit prices in the case of underestimated bids. If the contractor has high expertise in the chosen field it is much likely that he will remain profitable in the contract execution. Cost plus fixed percentage contract is the case where the owner assumes all the risks of the cost overruns. He will receive the actual direct job cost plus a fixed percentage and have little incentive to reduce the job cost. This contract even permits overtime payments to the workers and are very common and will further increase the job cost. It is very rarely employed by the owner. Cost plus fixed fee contract: this is a case where the contractor will receive the payment for the actual job as well as a fixed fee for the same. Generally the job does not constitute any special incentive to complete it quickly and hence there wont be much of the compellation to complete the project in time, except the risk of profit erosion for the project by means of delayed completion (Odeh et al, 2002)(Hendrickson et al, 1989)(Chan et al, 2004). c) The procurement techniques do have a large impact on the organization performance characteristics. Typical performance characteristics include time duration of the project completion, the cost of completion of the project, quality of the project etc. Working with a range of the possible ways is common in the construction projects. Each type of the methodology do have its own advantages and disadvantaged. For example a multi-disciplinary team will facilitate the collection of the expertise from large pool of expertise and will facilitate the project completion in the most effective manner. Integrated teams do work on to facilitate the efficient planning and completion of the project, Partnership is a typical model where the advantages of integration is chosen for the better performance as well as the issues like debt transfer to the private partner can be employed as in the case of PPP type of the procurement technique. However they are much complicated as involves more complicated processes in the anticipation of all the outcomes as well as benchmarking the performance in variety of the situations. Also it will lead to the further complications in the cases of large project durations. Typical key performance indicators in the case of construction project are the time of the completion, cost of the project, utilization of the resources, minimizing the waste disposal, legal and other compliances, etc. It is possible for an organization to deal with environmental management issues and legislation by means of selecting a particular project procurement process. 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